Introduction
In the Fall of 1995, I
decided on a topic for my Masters' thesis. Coming from a
country (India), which has been a victim of repeated natural
and human-induced disasters, I am keenly interested in the
role of a planner in disaster planning. I have developed a
special interest in the use of technology like Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) for disaster planning and
management. Therefore, for my Masters' thesis I decided to
study the applicability and feasibility of using GIS as a tool
for disaster management, particularly in the context of
developing countries. Having decided on my topic, I trudged to
the library in the anticipation of finding a lot of academic
material on the subject. I was in for a big shock. All I could
find were a few articles in some magazines and journals.
Confused and disheartened, I did not know where to look for
more information on this topic. At this point, I decided to do
a search on the World Wide Web (WWW). I was in for a bigger
surprise, fortunately a more encouraging one this time. It was
like I had hit on the Pandora's box. I was simply overwhelmed
by the plethora of information. It was then that I realized
that in my search for information on one tool for disaster
management, I had stumbled upon another vital tool - the World
Wide Web. This paper is an attempt to study how the World Wide
Web is being used now and how it can be used in the future for
disaster management. This study is based on only some of the
multitude of Web sites which deal with disasters and is in no
way all encompassing. It is an analytical study of how the
World Wide Web may be used in the times of disasters.
Before discussing how the
World Wide Web may be useful in disaster management, it is
important to discuss what a disaster is and the common
terminology associated with disaster management. A disaster is
a situation resulting from an environmental phenomenon or
armed conflict that produces stress, personal injury, physical
damage, and economic disruption of great magnitude (which is
usually beyond a certain threshold, defined differently by
different scholars, agencies and organizations)(REF01).
Therefore, disasters may not only be natural disasters such as
floods, earthquakes, fires, hurricanes, volcanoes, or drought,
but may be largely attributable to such human activities as
war, communal violence, plague, oil spills, air crashes or gas
leaks. These disasters can result in catastrophic human
suffering, loss of property and infrastructure, environmental
degradation, and social disruption (REF02)
There are five important
phases of disaster management : disaster prevention,
disaster mitigation, disaster preparedness, emergency
management, and disaster recovery. Of these,
disaster prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster
preparedness constitute the pre-disaster planning phase.
Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance,
to meet a future disaster (REF01).
Disaster prevention is action taken to eliminate or
avoid harmful natural phenomena and their effects. An example
of such an action is the construction of dams and levees to
prevent floods. Disaster mitigation is action that
deals with reducing human suffering and property loss. Disaster
preparedness encompasses those actions which are taken to
limit the impact of a natural phenomena by structuring
response and establishing a mechanism for effecting a quick
and orderly reaction (REF01).
It can ameliorate post-disaster trauma, and disaster education
can help people to cope with disasters when they strike.
Emergency management
responds to disasters with virtual organizations comprising
many services that are mobilized on a moment's notice,
function for an indeterminate period in a coordinated manner
under stressful and difficult circumstances, and are
demobilized after the emergency has abated. The ability of a
nation to manage emergencies, rather than react to crises, is
critically dependent on the availability and flow of real time
and archived information from monitoring systems, thematic
databases, and decision support systems that are linked
through national networks. (REF03).
Disaster recovery is the last phase of disaster
management and is concerned with providing relief after the
disaster has struck. It deals with providing food and shelter
to the disaster victims, restoring normal conditions and
providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild.
Disaster recovery also deals with the social and mental trauma
faced by the victims of a disaster and provides assistance to
cope with the post disaster trauma. This is more of a long
term operation and is a precursor for a new cycle of disaster
management leading to prevention and mitigation of future
disasters.
Where does the World
Wide Web fit into the above described phases of disaster
management ? There is no doubt that the World Wide Web is
an effective tool for communication. It provides a platform
for people across the world to exchange ideas, knowledge, and
technology. It brings together people with common interests
irrespective of their geographical location and the distance
separating them. In it's role as an effective tool for
communication, it can be invaluable for disaster management.
Communication for disaster management can be at four different
levels :
1. Communication between
experts involved in and doing research in disaster management
: Research on disaster management is carried on all over
the world. This is because of the uniqueness of a disaster
with respect to the area of occurrence. For example, a
low-magnitude earthquake causing insignificant damage in
California may have a totally different impact in a country
like Mexico or for that matter, any other developing country.
The techniques of disaster management will also vary
considerably depending upon the place the disaster occurs.
However, there are people researching the impacts of disaster
in various parts of the world and many of them have expertise
in regions far away from them. Their expertise will definitely
be of great help to those directly dealing with a disaster
situation. At the time of a disaster, the need for the hour is
the timely exchange of information and expertise. The World
Wide Web provides exactly this by providing an excellent
platform for exchange of information on the most current
research being carried on across the world. Not only this,
there are a lot of archived papers and studies which can be a
great resource for reference at the time of a disaster.
However, not many individuals have personal websites dealing
with disaster management. A site with a personal collection of
an archive of documents on various subjects related to
disasters is The
Disaster Connection. This site, though still under
construction, is an extensive site with information and
documents on disaster management, emergency services,
information on natural disasters, and list of organizations
which deal with disasters such as United Nation, Red Cross,
and other non-governmental organizations and federal
organizations. It also promises to list the research being
carried on by educational institutions and other organizations
with respect to technology, pathology, psychology, and social
welfare. Interestingly, this site is sponsored by ISMENNT,
the Icelandic Network for Education and Culture. Another way
in which experts and people with special interest keep abreast
of the latest findings and exchange ideas is through news
groups. Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has a listserv which
automatically distributes news releases, fact sheets,
advisories and major incident reports from FEMA. This listserv
has many registrants, from academics to paramedics and they
come from all over the world.
2. Communication between
organizations and agencies involved in disaster management : Most
organizations which are involved in disaster management have
their own web sites. Some such organizations are the United
Nations, Red Cross, Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Pan
American Health Organization (PAHO), etc. These sites
provide information about the nature of work done by these
agencies and most sites have pointers to other agencies. This
leads to some redundancy in information. However, the World
Wide Web is definitely a tool which organizations are using
for their publications, to interact with other similar
organizations and in the future have a more coordinated
approach to disaster planning.
FEMA
maintains a Global
Emergency Management System (GEMS). This contains
information on disaster management, disaster mitigation, and
emergency services along with information on various
agencies/organizations which deal with the various aspects of
disaster. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has web
sites which deal with earthquakes and other disasters. The
USDA also maintains sites which have information on
disasters.
Besides federal and
international organizations, extensive research on disasters
is being carried on in many universities and these
universities have very well developed websites dealing with
disaster management and planning. Some such universities are
Simon Fraser University (which houses the HazardNet), UCLA
Berkeley (Northern
California Earthquake Data Center), California
Technological Institute (Southern
California Earthquake Data Center), Stanford University
and many others. Most of these centers are long-term
information archive and distribution centers. Some, like the
University of Wisconsin-Madison have the DISASTER
MANAGEMENT CENTER which provides correspondence courses on
the Aim and Scope of Disaster Management. One can register for
this course through the email and on successful completion of
the final examination, get 2.0 CEU and receive a certificate
of completion.
The Asian Institute of
Technology at Bangkok houses the Asian
Disaster Preparedness Center which assists countries in
Asia and Pacific region in developing policies and
capabilities for the management of disasters. Likewise, the
University of Colorado at Boulders, houses the Natural
Hazards Center which is virtually a mine of information on
upcoming seminars, conferences and workshops related to
disasters. It also maintains a list of colleges and
universities offering courses in emergency management, a list
of GIS researchers and their work wit respect to disasters,
and also a list of Disaster Internet Sites.
Many of the organizations
have their newsletters, which are electronically published as
well. The
Asian Disaster Management News is a newsletter of the
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center. Similarly Natural Hazards
Center has a newsletter, Disaster
Research, which is published on the WWW. Information on
how to subscribe to this can be available by clicking here.
3. Communication tool in
the disaster preparedness phase to educate the people likely
to be victims of disasters: Most sites on disasters
maintained by organizations have documents which deal with
educating the public on how to cope with disasters and what to
do when disaster strikes. The The
Severe Weather Safety Guide is a webpage of National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S. Department
of Commerce. This page has information on tornado safety,
flash flood, lightning, winter storm/blizzard, and hurricane
with guidance on how to deal when caught in such a situation.
Furthermore, for those
already struck by a disaster, Volcano
World site, maintained at the University of North Dakota
on being asked about the potential of WWW in disaster
management expressed that the best use of WWW will be in
educating people in disaster prone areas. According to him,
"if enough of the population has even only a basic idea
of how volcanoes work, then when a volcano is showing signs of
unrest, the public will have a better idea of what to do, even
before civil defense authorities come along to tell them what
to do". He points out, however, that most people
threatened by volcanoes live in poor areas and do not have
access to WWW. This is ironical and definitely poses a
limitation to the use of this technology. However, with most
countries striving to set up an efficient information
infrastructure it will not be long before many people will
have access to World Wide Web. Therefore, even if each and
every person in a disaster prone area does not have access to
WWW, access at the community level will enable the educators
to get information from the WWW and disseminate it to the
grassroots. Language may pose a barrier. Therefore, some sites
are using signs to improve language independence. HazardNet,
provides access to information categorized by hazard type,
each category identified by an icon.
4. Communication Tool to
promote disaster awareness in people not victims of disasters:
The World Wide Web is being used for promoting awareness
of disasters and their repercussions on the people. Scott
Rowland of Volcano World feels that if people in the more
technologically-advanced countries are better acquainted with
what volcanoes do, they'll be more likely to support funding
for international volcano research, education, and relief
efforts. The FEMA
website has information for those who want to help disaster
victims and ways in which they can help. Many websites
including FEMA have pictures of disasters and of the
prevailing condition in the post-disaster period. For an
example of this click here.
These pictures intend to draw more financial support for the
victims of any disaster and keep the people informed about
relief operations. The Internet
Disaster Information Network provides information on list
of confirmed deaths in the bombing in Oklahoma City along with
list of hospitalized survivors, where to send donations, and a
FAQ on emotional support.
Use of Networks on the
WWW
Networks are powerful tools
which are constantly being used in disaster management.
Networks are increasing exchanges experience, research and
technical knowledge. "A technical cooperation network is
a voluntary cooperative arrangement involving institutions or
individuals in two or more countries"(REF05).
"Many G7 nations have established national emergency
information networks. However, emergency management often
exceeds the capabilities of national organizations, thereby
necessitating rapid, coordinated international response which
would be greatly facilitated with a global emergency
information network." (REFO3)
The Global
Emergency Management Information Network Initiative (GEMINI),
is one such network whose goal is to enhance national networks
and establish global network. GEMINI has three sub-projects :
1) A Global Emergency Response Management Center 2) A Global
Wildland Fire Information Network and 3) A Global Crisis and
Emergency Management Network. This network recognizes the need
for endorsement from leading international organizations such
as the IMO, G7 and UN. Endorsement from these respected
international bodies will give project direction and
international participation. Some other networks are Internet
Disaster Information Network (IDIN), and HazardNet.HazardNet,
a demonstration project of the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 1990-2000,
has data, maps and images which are drawn from a variety of
services around the world. The HazardNet is based on ideas
emerging out of IERRIS Net (International Emergency Reduction,
Readiness/Response System), which was the first internet-based
multimedia server developed specifically to improve the
assimilation and sharing of hazard related information. IERRIS
Net has its prototype in EPIX
(The Emergency Preparedness Information Exchange) of Simon
Fraser University in Vancouver, Canada. HazardNet provides a
Map of the World which shows the location of disasters, both
current and in the past. Clicking on the current disaster will
give one the latest status update as well as the GIS which can
be used in locating the disaster so that effective emergency
management (including planning, response management and
execution) can be accomplished. As part of its operational
service, it provides access to real-time hazard alerts,
warnings and forecasts, situation reports, news accounts,
geographic information system along with country information
on demographics. This service is to be used in monitoring
early warnings and alerts in order to coordinate effective and
timely international response. It also provides informational
service by providing access to natural and technological
information identified/categorized by hazard type. The IDNDR
also has its home page which provides access to the IDNDR
Secretariat in Geneva and to the wealth of hazard and disaster
related resources (REF04).
Interestingly enough, the Internet Disaster Information
Network is a public service provided by Internet Direct, an
Internet server and Telekachina Productions, which provides
video and multimedia production and consultation services to
local and national clients. Emergency
Preparedness Information Exchange (EPIX) is another
Internet computer-based information system designed to
stimulate networking and regular exchange of ideas and
information among members of the Canadian and International
disaster mitigation community.
The Australian
Disaster Management Information Network (ADMIN) a disaster
network of Australia has a database on firefighters. It gives
information on women in disaster, accommodation of displaced
people, legal rights of rescuers and even newsletters. The use
of networks is also very important for small peripheral
islands which are prone to many natural disasters. A recent
study by the former Office of the United Nations Disaster
Relief Coordinator has shown that at least 13 of the 25 most
disaster-prone countries are small island developing States(REF06).
It is therefore vital for island countries to establish and/or
strengthen existing regional mechanisms and communication
systems for rapid response to disasters. This fact is stressed
by the Small Islands
Information Network.
Conclusion
The above examples
illustrate how extensively the World Wide Web is already being
used for disaster management. Clearly, this usage will only
increase as the Web reaches out its tentacles to every nook
and corner of the world and more and more people decide to go
online. Countries are recognizing the importance of developing
an information infrastructure capable of sustaining state of
the art technology for use at the time of disasters.
Furthermore, there is a move towards globalization of disaster
networks to provide speedy assistance to every disaster
victim, irrespective of the national boundary and geographical
location. This globalization will have far-reaching impacts
and the future of disaster management looks far from
disastrous with the increasing use of WWW and networks.
REFERENCES
REF01 Aim
and Scope of Disaster Management, 1987. Disaster
Management Center.
REF02
Project Report, Halifax Summit, 1995
REF03
A Global Emergency Management Information Network
REF04 An
Introduction to HazardNet
REF05
The Information Network: The TCDC networks: powerful tools for
self-reliance. Asian Disaster Management News, Dec1994, Asian
Disaster Preparedness Center, Vol.2, No.4e.
REF06
Natural and Environmental Disasters. Program of Action,
United Nations Global Conference on Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States.
