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| Determinants of successful environmental regimes in the context of coastal wetlands of Goa |
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Reference |
| Sangeeta Sonak, Saltanat Kazi, Mahesh Sonak and Mary Abraham, "Determinants of successful environmental regimes in the context of coastal wetlands of Goa", December 2006 |
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Introduction to the Institution |
| Changes in land cover and land use are among the most important aspects of global environmental change. This is case study of the coastal wetlands, khazan ecosystem of Goa. Khazans are low-lying coastal lands, which have been reclaimed from marshy mangroves by construction of embankments and sluice gates. Traditionally, khazans have been managed by the coastal communities that were organized groups of largely autonomous, self-regulating, tribal peasant communities. These institutional arrangements were called as gaunkari. The foundation of gaunkari was based on the collective ownership and management of property and resources. |
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Rules for Management
of the Institution |
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(a) Boundary Rules |
| Spatial boundaries: coastal wetlands of Goa Social boundaries: Descents of Gaudas, gaud Brahmins, mith gaudas who are residents for years were allowed to be the part of ‘gaunkari’, a cooperative association of villagers, take part in the auctions for land and cultivate lands. New entrants and Non-residents of a village were not allowed to access to land or fish resources that were owned collectively by the village. However In 1961, Goa was liberated from the Portuguese colonial yoke and became a part of India and from then Non-residents were allowed rights to fishing, while land tenure was allowed to the persons cultivating it for a specified number of years. |
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(b) Governance
rules |
| Before the colonization of Portuguese in Goa, ‘gaunkari’ an indigenous cooperative association of villagers was present. This association comprised of gaunkars and membership to the gaunkari was ascribed to the male descendants on reaching adulthood. There were clearly defined rules and regulations, which governed the structure and functioning of this system. the emphasis of the gaunkari system was on management of khazan land which played a highly significant role in ecological sustainability of khazans. |
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(c) Resource Allocation |
| The gaunkari owned agricultural lands, coconut orchard, areca groves, pastoral lands, religious lands, common use lands such as crematorium, mand (common ground) for festivals. The land was collectively owned and leased out for cultivation. Tenants formed an association (bous) and were responsible for the management of the bunds and sluice gates . These leases’ rights were gained through regular auction. The revenue earned from the auction was used for the maintenance of the khazan infrastructure. Gaunkars also used to give annual surplus of the village to temple authorities for maintenance of the cult. |
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Conflict Resolution Mechanism |
| 1) From 1472 A.D Goa came under the rule of Muslim rulers (Adil Shahi rule). Nevertheless, villagers unitedly resisted Muslim encroachments in village communities and refused to admit Muslims in the village communities. Attempts of Adil Shahi rulers to alter agrarian relations caused a lot of tensions among the villagers.2) Before the arrival of the Portuguese village community was a homogeneous group. Colonial rule brought in heterogeneity between groups and religion became the major source of conflict. Religious conversions, forceful or in return of personal gains, brought social unrest. 3) After the merger of Goa with the Indian Union in 1961, non-residents were allowed rights to fishing, while land tenure was allowed to the persons cultivating it for a specified number of years. Loss of social cohesion followed entry of non-residents. Unsustainable fishing practices were introduced, resulting in conflicts between local farmers and non-resident fishers. |
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Problems Faced by Institution |
| 1) During Portuguese regime, Religion and forceful conversions became the main source of social unrest. Taxes to church and responsibilities towards civic functions reduced financial stability of the comunidades. Hindus migrated to the neighboring lands, which affected the agricultural production.2) After the merger of Goa in India in 1961, Rules applicable to the rest of India were blindly applied to Goa. There were no incentives for individual owners to cultivate, thus resulting into promotion of land use and cover change. Non-residents could bid at the auction. This reduced Social cohesion. Sources of income reduced |
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Changes in the Institution over time |
| After the conquest of Goa by Portuguese (in 1510 A.D.), re-structuring of the gaunkari by the mid-1520s started. During Portuguese regime in Goa (1510–1961), the gaunkaris were named as comunidades and the state assumed rights to intervene in the management by comunidad. Portuguese, however, continued with the communitarian way of living followed by the gaunkars.In 1961, Goa was liberated from the Portuguese colonial yoke and became a part of India. Goa Agricultural Tenancy Act 1964 was were made applicable to Goa. In the year 1976, this legislation was amended so as to vest the agricultural lands in the tenant actually cultivating the same (land to the tiller amendment). All these changes resulted in rendering the gaunkari/ comunidad system irrelevant to a great extent. |
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Purpose |
| Collective ownership and management of property and resources. |
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Country |
| coastal wetlands of Goa, India |
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Date Of Publication |
| RS-12/2006 |
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